Beyond Cultural Constructs: What Is Masculinity?
What is masculinity? What is femininity? Why is masculinity important? These questions have long been subjects of discussion, and are fervently and fiercly present in contemporary debate. Cultural and societal constructs often dictate what it means to embody these traits. But is this explanation really final? Scientific research consistently shows that masculinity is not just a feeling, a temporary mood, or a mere social construct: Masculinity is innately rooted in biology and genetics, although the extent of biological influence is still debated and subjected to science research today.
While masculinity, gender, and sex are intrinsically connected for the majority of men born in male bodies, women can display masculine traits, while men can also display feminine traits. Standards of masculinity and femininity vary by generation, ethnicity, and culture. Despite biological and cultural influences, it is important to understand however that individuals express their masculinity in different ways. Increased reflexion and awareness surely helps men to understand themselves better, and express their true identities more easily. In this article, we will explore some of the evidence supporting the existence of innate masculine traits.
What is Masculinity?
Masculinity is defined as the traits and behaviours typically associated with men. When we refer to masculinity, we are talking about a person’s gender. Masculinity involves the physiological aspects of men’s brains and bodies. A male is characterised by XY chromosomes and has distinct physiological traits and hormonal profile, primarily driven by testosterone. This hormone influences a range of characteristics, from physical strength and muscle mass to aggression and competitiveness, traits historically linked to masculine roles in society. These biological factors are not mere social labels but fundamental aspects of male identity, deeply ingrained in his genetic makeup.
Even though still subjected to debate, scientific studies have consistently shown that these biological differences impact behavior and preferences. Research indicates that not just boys and girls, but also primates, from a very young age, display different preferences in toys and activities for example, which are not solely the result of socialization but innate tendencies: A research conducted and published by Alexander and Hines (2002), titled "Sex differences in response to children's toys in nonhuman primates" found that nonhuman primates exhibited sex differences in toy preferences, similar to those observed in human children, suggesting that male primates are more likely to be interested towards things and female primates towards beings. Such evidence underscores the argument that masculinity is rooted in our biology, not a social construct, shaping how males interact with the world around them.
Biologically, a man is an adult human male. As established above, males typically have one X and one Y chromosome. They usually produce male gametes (sperm) and have primary and secondary sexual characteristics influenced by androgens, particularly testosterone. Biologically, masculinity is often associated with physical traits influenced by male hormones, particularly testosterone. These traits may include and are not exclusive to greater muscle mass, body hair, and a deeper voice.
Psychologically, a man can be defined by the mental and emotional traits typically associated with adult males, though these traits can vary widely among individuals. Masculinity can be identified by traits and behaviors that are collectively perceived as masculine, such as assertiveness, integrity, responsibility, competitiveness, independence, courage, fearlessness, strength, assertiveness, and leadership.
From a socio-cultural viewpoint, masculinity, is also partly influenced by societal norms, roles, and expectations. These can vary greatly across different cultures and historical periods. Masculinity is often associated with traits such as stoicism, and emotional restraint, but these associations are being increasingly challenged and redefined in contemporary societies.
It is important to understand that the above is an approach to a complex definition that is still subject to study and debate, as I mentioned before. What we do know is that genetics, biology, physical and psychological traits, as well as cultural and sociological context influence each other, both in men, as well as in women.
Biology and Culture: Two Sides of the Masculinity Puzzle
Understanding masculinity requires looking through more than one lens. Biological and evolutionary studies like those by Hines, Buss, and Archer, offer compelling insights into how hormones, brain structures, and evolutionary pressures may influence male behavior. For example, research on testosterone and aggression or toy preferences in primates is often cited as evidence of "natural" gender differences.
But while these studies highlight potential biological predispositions, they do not tell the whole story. Social scientists such as Connell, and psychologists like Eagly and Wood, remind us that masculinity is also shaped by cultural norms, expectations, and roles that differ widely across time and place. Their research suggests that what it means to "be a man" is learned and reinforced in daily life through family, media, education, and peer groups.
Rather than opposing each other, these perspectives can be complementary. Biology may set certain potentials or tendencies, but culture plays a powerful role in shaping how those potentials are expressed. A more complete understanding of masculinity comes from holding both views, acknowledging our biology while deeply questioning how social environments guide, reward, or suppress certain traits.
Is Masculinity Innate?
Biological Foundation
Research in evolutionary psychology and genetics has shed light on the biological underpinnings of masculinity. Studies have shown that certain behaviors and characteristics associated with masculinity, such as aggression and risk-taking, have roots in evolutionary processes aimed at increasing reproductive success (Archer, 2009). For example, traits like physical strength and assertiveness have been linked to testosterone levels, a hormone predominantly found in males (Archer, 2006). Furthermore, studies on the role of genetics have identified specific gene variants associated with traits like aggression and dominance, which are often considered hallmarks of masculinity (Ferguson et al., 2010).
A research by Alexander, G. M., & Hines, M. (2002), entitled “Sex differences in response to children's toys in nonhuman primates. Evolution and Human Behavior” involved presenting vervet monkeys with a variety of toys, including those typically associated with boys (such as balls and toy cars) and girls (such as dolls and cooking pots). The results showed that male vervet monkeys spent more time interacting with the toys typically associated with boys, while female vervet monkeys showed a preference for the toys typically associated with girls. This finding indicates that sex differences in toy preferences are not solely the result of socialization but may have a biological basis, observable even in nonhuman primates. This study supports the perspective that biological differences influence behavior and preferences, which in turn shape gender roles and identity, including the concept of masculinity.
Cultural Influences
While biology plays the main role in shaping masculine traits, it’s without a doubt that cultural factors also contribute to their expression. Societal norms and expectations often prescribe certain behaviors and characteristics as masculine, leading individuals to adopt these traits to fit in and conform to gender roles (Connell, 1995). However, it is crucial to recognize that cultural influences do not negate the biological basis of masculinity but rather interact with it in rather complex ways.
Cultural Construct vs. Biological Reality
While cultural constructions undoubtedly influence how masculinity is expressed in all societies, they do not override the innate fundamental biological and gendered foundations. The politically driven contemporary push to redefine masculinity by separating it from these foundations, is leading many individuals to confusion, nihilism and identity crises. Such attempts ignore and undermine the inherent realities of male and female biology.
Masculinity and femininity should be celebrated and understood within the context of these natural differences. Attempts to diminish or negate the biological and gendered aspects of masculinity and femininity undermine the unique contributions that men and women make to society. Instead, recognizing and embracing these differences allows for a more inclusive and accurate understanding of what it means to be a man, or a woman.
Interpreting Scientific Findings and Social Theories with Care
Many popular references to gender differences, such as boys being "naturally" more aggressive or drawn to certain toys, stem from studies in evolutionary psychology or animal behavior. While these studies, like those by Alexander, Hines, or Archer, contribute valuable data, it's important to remember that their conclusions are often interpretations, not certainties.
Take toy preference in primates or the link between testosterone and aggression: these findings are frequently presented as if they prove without a doubt that gender behavior is hardwired. More than anything, they reflect specific hypotheses within a broader and sometimes controversial scientific debate. Human behavior is influenced by complex interactions between biology, upbringing, personal experience, and cultural context.
Framing these studies accurately means acknowledging that they suggest possibilities in this ongoing discussion, not absolute truths. The same way, it is not accurate to say that gender is purely a social construct. When we interpret scientific research or social theories as part of a larger conversation, rather than final answers, we allow space for curiosity, nuance, and personal growth on the path to understanding masculinity.
When the Map Is Missing: Why So Many Young Men Feel Lost
In today’s world, many young men are growing up without a clear or meaningful path to manhood. They’re caught between extremes: told to reject the outdated, macho ideals of the past, yet often offered little to replace them. The result? Confusion. Frustration. A deep sense of not knowing who they are, or who they’re supposed to become.
Without guidance, this confusion can push some men toward the very thing they’re trying to avoid: the unhealthy, rigid version of masculinity built on domination, emotional suppression, and control. It's not because they want to hurt others, but rather because they’re searching for something solid to hold onto. In a world that’s constantly criticizing masculinity, blaming it for all that’s negative in society, but rarely offering a better vision, some go backward simply to feel like they belong somewhere.
This is why the idea of healthy masculinity matters now more than ever.
Healthy masculinity doesn’t shame men for their power, drive, or strength, it teaches them how to use these qualities with integrity, empathy, and purpose. It encourages men to feel deeply, express honestly, set boundaries clearly, and lead with heart. It doesn’t ask men to be less, or repress who they truly are. It asks them to be more themselves, fully embodied and fully human.
This version of masculinity isn’t handed down by culture. It’s forged through self-awareness, brotherhood, and inner work. And it’s exactly what today’s generation of men is hungry for: a masculinity that heals rather than harms, that builds rather than breaks, that frees rather than cages.
The Path Toward Healthy, Mature Masculinity
As we move beyond rigid or reactive definitions in the discussion of what it means to be a man, a more grounded vision emerges. One rooted in what many call healthy or mature masculinity. This isn't about being “less masculine” or throwing out everything we've inherited. It’s about growing into a version of masculinity that is integrated, conscious, and life-affirming.
Mature masculinity is not performative. It doesn't rely on dominance, denial of emotion, or disconnection. Instead, it involves cultivating self-awareness, emotional literacy, presence, and purpose. The Masculine Archetypes - the King, Warrior, Magician, and Lover, drawn from Jungian psychology and myth, provide helpful maps. Each represents an aspect of the masculine psyche that, when balanced, creates a more whole and grounded man:
The King leads with wisdom and integrity.
The Warrior takes action with courage and discipline.
The Magician brings insight, intuition, and transformation.
The Lover opens the heart to beauty, feeling, and connection.
Yet many men today are disconnected from these energies—or stuck in distorted versions of them. That’s where men’s work comes in. Whether in sharing circles, men’s retreats, or personal practice, men’s work offers a space to explore and reclaim these archetypes, confront internalized beliefs, and build relationships based on honesty and support.
This work is not about fixing men. It’s about helping men remember who they are beneath the noise of culture and conditioning. It invites men to become not just stronger, but more whole.
So, What Is Men’s Work?
Men’s Work is the conscious practice of men coming together to explore who they are beneath the surface, beyond their roles, masks, and conditioning. It’s not therapy, but it can be deeply healing. It’s not religion, but it often leads to spiritual insight. At its core, men’s work creates space for truth, challenge, and connection.
In a world where men are often expected to tough it out, stay silent, or figure things out alone, men’s work offers something radically different: a space to be seen, heard, and supported by other men without judgment. Through practices like men’s circles, embodiment exercises, emotional inquiry, and mythic/archetypal exploration, men learn to reconnect with their deeper selves.
This work supports the growth of healthy and mature masculinity by:
Helping men develop emotional intelligence, to feel without shame and express without harm.
Encouraging accountability and integrity, rather than blame or avoidance.
Reconnecting men with purpose and direction, especially in times of transition or confusion.
Providing community and brotherhood, countering isolation and competition with real connection.
Men’s work is not about fixing men. It’s about giving them the tools, space, and support to remember who they are—and to grow into the kind of man the world needs more of: grounded, open-hearted, present, and strong.
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Relevant Authors on Masculinity and Men’s Work
Relevant authors like Carl Jung, Robert Glover, and David Deida explore the concept of masculinity from various perspectives. Glover, in "No More Mr. Nice Guy," discusses how societal expectations can hinder men from expressing their authentic selves and fulfilling their potential. Deida, in "The Way of the Superior Man," delves into the spiritual dimension of masculinity, advocating for men to embrace their purpose and pursue self-mastery.
Carl Jung
Carl Jung, a Swiss psychiatrist and psychoanalyst, made significant contributions to our understanding of masculinity through his exploration of archetypes and the collective unconscious. In his work, particularly in "Psychological Types" and "Man and His Symbols," Jung delved into the concept of archetypes as universal symbols and patterns of behavior that are deeply ingrained in the human psyche. Among these archetypes are the masculine archetypes, which represent idealized images of masculinity that transcend individual experiences and cultural influences.
Jung identified several masculine archetypes, including the King, the Warrior, the Magician, and the Lover, each embodying different aspects of masculinity such as courage, strength, wisdom, and passion. These archetypes are psychological templates that influence how individuals perceive and enact their masculinity, shaping their behavior, values, and aspirations. Jung's work on masculine archetypes offers insights into the psychological underpinnings of masculinity, highlighting the universality and enduring nature of masculinity across cultures and historical periods.
Scientific Reference Summary:
Jung's work on masculine archetypes is not based on empirical studies in the traditional sense but draws from his clinical observations, cross-cultural studies, and explorations of mythology and symbolism. While Jung's theories may lack empirical validation in the strict sense, they have had a profound impact on the field of psychology and continue to influence contemporary understandings of masculinity. Jung's concept of archetypes and the collective unconscious offers a framework for understanding the deeper dimensions of masculinity beyond individual and cultural variations, contributing to our appreciation of the universality and complexity of human experience.
Robert Glover
Robert Glover, a psychotherapist and author, offers insights into masculinity and relationships in his book "No More Mr. Nice Guy: A Proven Plan for Getting What You Want in Love, Sex, and Life." Glover explores the phenomenon of the "nice guy" syndrome, where men suppress their authentic desires and emotions in an attempt to gain approval and avoid conflict. He argues that societal expectations often pressure men to conform to a narrow definition of masculinity, leading to feelings of frustration and resentment. Glover encourages men to embrace their true selves, assert their needs and boundaries, and cultivate genuine connections with others. His work highlights the importance of self-awareness and self-acceptance in developing healthy masculinity.
Scientific Reference Summary:
Glover's exploration of masculinity in "No More Mr. Nice Guy: A Proven Plan for Getting What You Want in Love, Sex, and Life" is informed by his clinical experience as a psychotherapist working with men. While Glover's work is not based on specific scientific studies, it draws on psychological principles and observations from his practice. His analysis of the "nice guy" syndrome and its impact on men's lives reflects broader themes in psychology related to identity, authenticity, and interpersonal relationships. Glover's insights into masculinity resonate with many individuals grappling with societal expectations and personal challenges, offering practical strategies for self-awareness and growth.
David Deida
David Deida, a spiritual facilitator and author, delves into the deeper dimensions of masculinity in his book "The Way of the Superior Man: A Spiritual Guide to Mastering the Challenges of Women, Work, and Sexual Desire." Deida explores the interplay between masculinity, femininity, and spiritual growth, advocating for men to embrace their purpose and pursue self-mastery. He emphasizes the importance of polarity in relationships, where masculine and feminine energies complement each other to create harmony and passion. Deida's work challenges conventional notions of masculinity by encouraging men to embrace vulnerability, authenticity, and emotional depth in their interactions with others.
Scientific Reference Summary:
Deida's exploration of masculinity in "The Way of the Superior Man: A Spiritual Guide to Mastering the Challenges of Women, Work, and Sexual Desire" is grounded in his understanding of Eastern spiritual traditions and contemporary psychology. While Deida's work may not directly reference scientific studies, it offers insights into the deeper dimensions of masculinity and personal transformation. His emphasis on purpose, presence, and polarity in relationships reflects broader themes in psychology and spirituality related to self-discovery and interpersonal connection. Deida's writings resonate with many individuals seeking meaning and fulfillment in their lives, offering a perspective that integrates psychological insights with spiritual wisdom.
Simon Baron-Cohen
Simon Baron-Cohen, a psychologist and author, explores the biological basis of gender differences in his book "The Essential Difference: Male and Female Brains and the Truth about Autism." Baron-Cohen's research focuses on understanding the cognitive and neurobiological differences between males and females, particularly in areas such as empathy and systemizing. He proposes the "Empathizing-Systemizing" theory, suggesting that females, on average, tend to excel in empathizing tasks, while males excel in systemizing tasks. Baron-Cohen argues that these differences are rooted in biological factors, such as prenatal hormone exposure, rather than purely social or cultural influences. His work challenges traditional notions of gender as solely a social construct and highlights the importance of considering biological factors in understanding gender differences.
Scientific Reference Summary:
Baron-Cohen's research delves into the cognitive and neurobiological aspects of gender differences, particularly in empathy and systemizing abilities. He proposes that these differences are not solely influenced by social or cultural factors but are also rooted in biological mechanisms, such as prenatal hormone exposure. Baron-Cohen's work contributes to the growing body of evidence supporting the biological basis of gender differences, challenging conventional understandings of gender as purely socially constructed.
Louann Brizendine
Louann Brizendine, a neuropsychiatrist and author, explores the neurological differences between males and females in her book "The Female Brain" and "The Male Brain." Brizendine's research draws on neuroscience and endocrinology to elucidate how hormonal differences between the sexes shape brain development and behavior from infancy to adulthood. She highlights specific areas of the brain that differ between males and females, such as the amygdala and the corpus callosum, and how these differences contribute to variations in cognition, emotion, and social behavior. Brizendine's work emphasizes the role of biology in shaping gender differences, challenging the notion that gender is purely a social construct.
Scientific Reference Summary:
Brizendine's research focuses on the neurological differences between males and females, highlighting the role of hormones in shaping brain development and behavior. She explores how these differences contribute to variations in cognition, emotion, and social behavior across the lifespan. Brizendine's work underscores the importance of considering biological factors in understanding gender differences, adding to the growing body of evidence supporting the innate aspects of gender.
Gender Identity and Spiritual Growth: Why Knowing Yourself Comes First
In many spiritual traditions, there’s a phrase you might hear: “You need to be someone before you can become no one.”
What does that mean? It means that before we can truly let go of our identity and ego on the spiritual path, we first need to fully understand and embrace who we are as human beings. We need to be grounded in our bodies first, our personal life, our relationships, our work, our emotions, and our experiences. Only then can we go deeper into spiritual practices without losing touch with reality.
Get to Know Yourself First
Spiritual growth doesn’t start with escaping the world, it starts with knowing yourself in the world, and accepting it. That means asking:
Who am I really?
What are my strengths and struggles?
What do I care about?
How have my culture, family, and past shaped me?
It also includes having a healthy connection with the body you were born with, how you relate to being male, female, and how that influences how you live and see the world. This isn’t about being self-centered. It’s about becoming grounded. Without that grounding, starting in your body, trying to “let go of the self” can lead to confusion, lack of direction, or even serious mental health issues.
Build a Strong Sense of Self
Think of your spiritual path like a house. Before you can tear down the walls and open it up to the sky, you need to make sure it’s built well in the first place. A solid foundation means:
You know who you are.
You have a healthy relationship with the body you were born with.
You’ve accepted yourself fully, with all your light and shadow.
You’re connected to life and to others.
From here, spiritual practices like meditation, yoga, martial arts, or devotional rituals become powerful tools. They help you notice and release the roles and masks you've taken on, like being the “good guy,” the “people pleaser,” the “tough one,” or the “perfect parent.” But here’s the key: You can’t let go of what you don’t know you’re holding. So the journey begins by becoming aware of what’s really there.
Understand and Integrate Your Gender as One
Gender plays a big role in how we see ourselves and how others see us. In spiritual terms, we are not many, we are one. This healthy awareness affects our emotional expression, our relationships, our work roles, and our sense of power and purpose. In spiritual growth, accepting and exploring your gender and the body you were born into, helps you see yourself more clearly. It gives you insight into your unique path, challenges, and gifts. And from this honest self-awareness, you can begin to transcend your identity, not by rejecting it, but by growing beyond it.
Real spiritual growth isn’t about escaping who you are. It’s about getting to know yourself so deeply that the need to “prove” or “defend” your identity naturally fades away. Only then can you relax into something greater than the self, without getting lost along the way.
Gender Dysphoria
As we established above, science points out distinct traits common to men, as well as distinct traits common to women. Yet, individuals exist who do not identify with the sex and body they were born into. This phenomenon, referred to as Gender Dysphoria, represents a minority who experience a disconnection between their sex and their gender. Gender Dysphoria is a real and a significant experience for those affected. While science confirms innate male and female traits, it also acknowledges the existence of individuals who feel a profound mismatch between their gender identity and their biological sex. Native American tribes, for instance, commonly considered the existence of a third gender. Accepting this reality is also crucial for fostering an inclusive and respectful society.
Despite the presence of Gender Dysphoria however, the majority of individuals identify with their biological sex: most women born in female bodies identify as women, and most men born in male bodies identify as men. This predominant alignment underscores the natural correlation between biological sex and gender identity for the majority of individuals.
It is essential to respect and include all individuals with Gender Dysphoria and those advocating for their inclusiveness. They have the right to express their identities and be heard. However, this inclusiveness should not overshadow the experiences of the majority who identify with their biological sex. True freedom of speech means maintaining an open discussion where diverse perspectives on gender identity are respected and acknowledged, both progressive and conservative.
While advocating for the rights of minority groups, I agree that it is important to keep an open debate, and avoid imposing one single perspective as the standard for all. Recognizing both the experiences of those with Gender Dysphoria as well as those who identify with their biological sex, ensures a balanced approach to the gender identity discussion.
Conclusion
Masculinity cannot be fully understood or appreciated without recognizing the interdependence of biology, gender, sex as well as social and cultural influence. These elements work in tandem to create the distinctive characteristics and behaviours associated with being a man, with all possible variations in their expression. Some scientific research underscores that masculinity is deeply rooted in our biology and not a mere cultural construct.
By acknowledging and respecting these interconnected foundations, we can foster a society that values and supports the unique strengths and contributions of men. This perspective champions a balanced approach, where both biological realities and socio-cultural contexts are considered, ensuring that masculinity and femininity are respected and celebrated in their differences, without fear, in a way that honors both their innate natures.
Masculinity is not merely a feeling or a cultural construction - It is also grounded in biology and genetics. While cultural influences shape its expression without a doubt, scientific evidence shows that innate masculine traits exist and play a significant role in human behaviour. Acknowledging the biological basis of masculinity is essential for understanding gender dynamics and promoting genuine equality between men and women.
On a spiritual perspective, if this is your path, by becoming someone - actively participating in all aspects of life, exploring and embracing your identity, your uniqueness, and what makes you who you are - you create the groundwork for deeper personal work and spiritual practice. This initial self-recognition is not an endpoint but a necessary stage in a deeper journey. It is through the full acknowledgment and acceptance of your unique self that you can embark on the profound spiritual journey of self-discovery. This journey, marked by years of practice and dedication, can lead to a state of unity and interconnectedness that lies at the heart of spiritual transformation.
Respecting the diverse experiences of gender, on the other hand, enriches the dialogue on gender and inclusivity. Upholding the biological realities of the majority while supporting minority voices, opening to dialogue with curiosity ensures that the conversation remains open, respectful, and reflective of true freedom of expression.
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Scientific References
Alexander, G. M., & Hines, M. (2002). Sex differences in response to children's toys in nonhuman primates (Cercopithecus aethiops sabaeus). Evolution and Human Behavior, 23(6), 467-479.
Hines, M. (2010). Sex-related variation in human behavior and the brain. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 14(10), 448-456. Hines examines the neurobiological basis of sex-related variation in human behavior, focusing on differences in brain structure and function between males and females. She discusses how hormonal factors, such as prenatal testosterone exposure, contribute to the development of sex differences in brain anatomy and cognitive abilities. The article reviews empirical evidence from neuroimaging studies and animal research to elucidate the neural mechanisms underlying sex differences in behavior, providing insights into the interplay between biology and behavior.
Archer, J. (2009). Does sexual selection explain human sex differences in aggression? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 32(3-4), 249-266. Archer examines the role of sexual selection in explaining the observed sex differences in aggression. Drawing on evolutionary psychology principles, he discusses how competition for mates may drive males to engage in more aggressive behaviors compared to females. The article delves into the evolutionary roots of aggression, proposing that males may have evolved to be more aggressive as a means of enhancing their reproductive success. Archer's analysis contributes to the ongoing debate on the evolutionary origins of gender differences in aggression.
Archer, J. (2006). Testosterone and human aggression: An evaluation of the challenge hypothesis. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 30(3), 319-345. In this review, Archer evaluates the challenge hypothesis, which posits that testosterone levels are positively correlated with aggression in males, particularly during mating season. He examines the empirical evidence supporting this hypothesis, discussing both animal and human studies. Archer also explores the role of testosterone in regulating social dominance and status-related behaviors. The review provides a comprehensive overview of the relationship between testosterone and aggression, highlighting the complex interplay between hormonal factors and social context.
Ferguson, C. J., Beaver, K. M., & Vaughn, M. G. (2010). Genetic and environmental influences on violent behavior: A critical review of twin and adoption studies. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 37(6), 721-739. Ferguson et al. conduct a critical review of twin and adoption studies to examine the relative contributions of genetic and environmental factors to violent behavior. They analyze existing research findings to assess the extent to which genetic and environmental influences account for individual differences in violent behavior. The article discusses methodological considerations and challenges in studying the etiology of violence, providing insights into the complex interplay between genetic predispositions and environmental factors.
Connell, R. W. (1995). Masculinities. Univ of California Press. Connell explores the concept of masculinities from a sociological perspective, examining how masculinity is constructed and performed within social contexts. He discusses the plurality of masculinities and the ways in which gender norms and expectations vary across different cultures and historical periods. The book offers a nuanced analysis of masculinity as a social phenomenon, challenging essentialist and monolithic views of gender identity.
Eagly, A. H., & Wood, W. (1999). The origins of sex differences in human behavior: Evolved dispositions versus social roles. American Psychologist, 54(6), 408-423. Eagly and Wood review empirical evidence from evolutionary psychology and social role theory to explore the origins of sex differences in human behavior. They compare and contrast the evolutionary perspective, which emphasizes evolved dispositions shaped by natural selection, with the social role perspective, which highlights the influence of socialization and cultural expectations. The article provides a comprehensive overview of the theoretical frameworks and empirical findings related to gender differences, offering insights into the interplay between biological and sociocultural factors.
Buss, D. M. (2008). Evolutionary psychology: The new science of the mind. Pearson Education. Buss introduces the field of evolutionary psychology and its applications to understanding human behavior. He discusses evolutionary principles such as natural selection and sexual selection, highlighting their relevance to various domains of psychology, including mating preferences, parental investment, and aggression. The book provides an overview of key concepts and research findings in evolutionary psychology, offering a framework for analyzing human behavior from an evolutionary perspective.
